Understanding the impact of trauma on rangatahi

What is trauma?

Trauma is the long lasting effects from adverse life experiences. These experiences are often physically or psychologically threatening and cause feelings of fear and helplessness (Augimeri et al., 2018; Grenwald, 2005; Steele & Malchodi, 2011). Trauma can be a response to a one-off event, such as a car accident or a sexual assault, or as a result of experiencing or witnessing abuse, violent or frightening experiences over time. Trauma can also result from other repeated, negative experiences such as neglect, bullying or verbal abuse, and from historical or intergenerational experiences such as racism, colonisation and poverty.

Not everyone will have a trauma response to distressing life experiences, but it is more likely to occur if the event was severe, life threatening and in the context of close relationships (for example if caregivers cause harm). What happens after an event can also have an impact on whether someone has a trauma response. For example, if rangatahi have positive adult support and a range of positive coping strategies after an event these can be protective factors to ongoing trauma (Greenwald, 2005).

Fight, flight or freeze

Our bodies automatically react to threats. When we perceive danger, our body responds through the fight/flight/freeze response. This can include increasing blood flow and tensing of muscles, rapid breathing, and being very alert to our surroundings, or being unable to move. These responses are designed to help us survive by attacking, running away, or freezing to escape notice/reduce further harm. During this fight/flight/freeze response the brain moves into survival mode, causing a rush of adrenaline, and the parts of the brain responsible for thinking things through shut down. (Steele & Malchodi, 2011). Our responses in the face of danger are automatic, we cannot choose whether we will experience fight/flight or freeze.

Once the danger has passed, and we know it is safe, the body and brain return to normal, and with support, feelings of fear and helplessness can be managed. Unfortunately, sometimes this natural healing process doesn’t occur and the fear or negative beliefs about oneself or the world can persist and be easily triggered (Steele & Malchodi, 2011). In this way, trauma can be described as ‘fear that never turns off’ (Moreland-Capuia, 2019, p.63).

When developed as a result of multiple traumatic experiences, this survivor response becomes the automatic, implicit, nonthinking response to a perceived threat (Steele & Malchodi, 2011, p.147).

Impacts and symptoms of trauma

Having trauma can mean rangatahi are extra sensitive to threat and stress. This means they might respond to things as threats, such as someone looking at them, that without the experience of trauma would not cause this response. This focus on threat can make it hard to concentrate on other things, so rangatahi may seem very distractable or overwhelmed. They may also re-experience parts of the trauma in the present, including memories, images, feelings, smells or sensations. These responses are known as flashbacks or intrusions. Rangatahi may have very high emotional responses to situations that remind them of the event or events. They might be aware of the reminder or trauma or they might not be. They may feel they have no control over these reactions. As a result, traumatised people often experience high anxiety and avoid situations, people or reminders of the trauma. This might mean that they are unable to live their life in ways they would like to. For example, they would like to feel safe in relationships but instead they might not be able to trust anyone and push people away who they get close to. Or they would like to be able to learn how to drive but they can’t get into a car because they experience overwhelming fear.

Alternatively, rangatahi may withdraw, and seem numb, or not present (Greenwald, 2005) and this type of response may be more common where rangatahi have experienced repeated, prolonged, and inescapable threats. They may have trouble remembering periods of time, events or people, feel very distant, or describe that sometimes they feel that they, others or things around them seem unreal. They may also talk about bad experiences without any feeling.

Traumatic experiences can influence how rangatahi see themselves, others, relationships and the world around them (see Attachment). Rangatahi who have experienced trauma may have trouble managing their emotions, such as becoming extremely upset by a comment made by a friend or adult and may behave aggressively or harm others, such as starting fights, offending, and damaging property. They may have mental health difficulties, like depression or anxiety and may struggle to have appropriate boundaries, such as putting themselves into risky situations, sharing too much with others or inappropriate sexual behaviour. They may also have low self-esteem and feel hopeless about the future. Some rangatahi may also experience physical symptoms such as a sore stomach or sleep issues (Gledhill et al., 2017). Research has shown that those with early traumatic experiences are more likely to experience behavioural, physical and mental health difficulties later on (Augimeri et al., 2018; Moreland-Capuia, 2019).

Understanding trauma processes and symptoms is important, because the behaviours we see in rangatahi may be coping mechanisms rather than simply being extreme or bad behaviour (see Perspective). When we only focus on changing or controlling behaviours, rather than understanding rangatahi and helping them feel safe and calm, we will likely only be met with their survival responses. Working in a way that understands trauma and responds based on this understanding is called trauma-informed practice.

These behaviors, as illogical as they may seem, are an attempt to regain power over, avoid, or escape the “whom” or “what” in the environment that triggers those deep-brain traumatic memories (Steele & Malchiodi, 2011, p.147).

How relationships can help heal trauma

Positive helping relationships are key to trauma-informed practice. If we remember that trauma creates feelings of fear and powerlessness, positive relationships can provide opportunities for experiences of safety and empowerment. The presence of a calm and safe adult can also help rangatahi to relieve the physical tension of a trauma response (fight/flight/freeze) and regulate their emotions, through physical or sensory activities that help rangatahi focus on the here and now. These might include things such as breathing, mindfulness, music, sport, play and art. Because the thinking part of the brain is less active during a trauma response, then rangatahi may not be able to use talking or thinking approaches to calm down, so non-verbal activities are important.

Attachment theory also helps us to understand why positive relationships can be so powerful. Early relationships with caregivers can help create a mental map for relationship with self and others (See Attachment). When these early relationships are physically and emotionally responsive they help to create trust, safety and support pēpi and tamariki to regulate their emotions. When these attachments are disrupted then this sense of safety is not created and can result in inability to manage emotions, and difficulties with learning and relationships (Steele & Malchiodi, 2011).

These mental maps can be re-created through relationships that are safe, responsive, and caring. As the quote to the right describes, experiences of positive activities, kindness and care stick with tamariki and rangatahi. Small actions matter and can help to make a big difference.

Regardless of the environments children must navigate daily, those memories that help traumatized children thrive when facing multiple exposures are those related to what others did with them, to them, and for them throughout their lives (Steele & Malchiodi, 2011 p. 137).

What to do and how to be

Steele & Malchiodi suggest that there are three key parts to developing trauma informed relationships. Safety, trust and respect. Safety is the most important, because in survival mode (described above), the thinking part of the brain is offline, meaning that rangatahi will struggle to heal, learn and grow if they do not feel safe. The establishment of safety may take a long time with rangatahi who have trauma, so patience is key, along with building trust, respect and being consistent.

Tips for kaimahi to create safety, trust and respect adapted from Augimeri et al., Greenwald, 2005; Moreland-Capuia, 2019; Steele & Malchiodi, 2019 include:

Empathy is key. Try to put yourself in rangatahi shoes and understand their experience and what they might be thinking and feeling (see Humility). Having someone hold their thoughts, feelings and experiences in mind was likely missing for rangatahi during traumatic experiences.
Use rituals, such as greetings, high-fives, farewells or structure of time together to help create safety and predictability.
Acknowledge fears and mistrust and provide validation and support.
Acknowledgment of rangatahi feelings and validation of how they have coped can help rangatahi feel calm (see Recognition and shame).
Show care and be warm and consistent.
Give opportunities to make choices so rangatahi see they can be in control (see Agency and voice).
Protect rangatahi from harm and work to ensure they are safe and their basic needs are met (see Action orientation). This includes responding when other rangatahi put them down or threaten them.
Use mindfulness activities like breathing, being out in nature, movement, sport, music and art to help switch off the fight/flight/freeze response, calm the nervous system and regulate emotions.
Spend time on calming activities that help rangatahi feel regulated before the end of your time each time you meet so they don’t go back to
home/school upset or angry.
Give challenges that are age appropriate and where rangatahi can experience success (see Relevant).
Be in tune with where rangatahi are at and notice body language and nonverbal cues, and what is going on in their outside life, and adapt accordingly (see Adaptability, Time).

Be on time, and do what you say you will do. This creates security and helps to repair past disappointments.
Be clear about boundaries, hold to them and be prepared to reinforce them many times in a calm and appropriate way. This helps rangatahi know what to expect and makes the relationship predictable and shows that consequences don’t need to be harsh and scary (see Honesty).
Work with colleagues and all be on the same page about boundaries and consequences to help create predictability and security.
Do age-appropriate activities together and have some fun. New and positive experiences can help change beliefs and expectations that bad things will happen.
Give time and support so rangatahi know someone cares and can be relied on.
Ask open-ended questions and be curious and present (see Hearing rangatahi).
See rangatahi as more than the problems they come with (see Passion).
Understand the cultural background of rangatahi and show interest and
respect to what is important to them.
Remember that any transitions can be scary, even things such as morning or evening routines. Prioritise time and connection at these times, even if you are busy.
Remain hopeful and believe that change is possible.
Model calm behaviour and how to be in difficult situations – this helps rangatahi feel safe and helps them to learn new approaches.
Use language that encourages positive relationships e.g. if there has been an incident first ask “Is everyone safe?” rather than “What did you do?” which can show judgement and blame.

Working with trauma can be difficult and can bring up our own feelings and challenges (See working with challenging emotions). Critical reflection and self-care (see Critical reflection) are key to making sure kaimahi can be emotionally regulated. Because rangatahi who have experienced trauma are very sensitive to threat, if we behave in emotionally unpredictable ways rangatahi can feel that something very bad is happening. It is important to take good care of ourselves and seek regular support in order to remain a safe and stable presence for rangatahi.

How do I use these ideas in my mahi?

This case example shows how a kaimahi helped a rangatahi feel safe and calm when their trauma response was triggered in a group.

Arlo was a 17 year old youth, in my youth group. I noticed that sometimes he would seem really engaged and talkative and at other times really in his head or disengaged. At these times he would just pass on our activities and appear grumpy. I made sure that everyone felt comfortable to do this, by having a group agreement that included that all participation and sharing is voluntary and encouraged but also they were free to say no or pass. This is an important way to give permission for people to say no, which is often something that people who have experienced trauma never had a chance to do. Giving permission to say no is an important aspect of creating a sense of safety for rangatahi, and respecting this no when they do assert it, is even more important.

In one group session, the other members of the group were talking about their experiences of family and a group member made a joke about his father giving him a hiding. Before the facilitators had a chance to say anything several of the other rangatahi laughed. Arlo suddenly became visibly agitated, said ‘F**k this’ and stormed out of the room. We run groups with two facilitators so that at times like this there is always one facilitator who can attend to any distress and support rangatahi who need some space or extra guidance. One thing to remember is that groups very often bring up issues around family – the group is sort of like a pseudo family, and rangatahi who have had abusive or neglectful family environments can sometimes experience themselves in groups as if they were in those same environments. I followed Arlo out of the room and asked him if we could talk. We had already agreed in our group agreement that people are welcome to take some time out of the group if they get overwhelmed – this is sort of a physical ‘no’ if they need it to feel safer.

We also let them know that one of us will follow up with them, but they also agree to stay in the building and we have a spot where they can go. Creating boundaries and pre-empting challenging situations can also create a sense of safety for traumatized rangatahi.

Arlo agreed we could talk and I started with a connecting statement and asking very open ended questions. I said ‘hey, what was said in there wasn’t actually funny aye, violence is never funny. You seemed really annoyed about what [name] said, so I’m wondering what I might be able to do to help you now?’. In this, I was trying to come alongside Arlo, I came down to his physical level to talk, which can help if someone is feeling threatened, and I didn’t ask Arlo to explain what he was triggered by in that moment because it is really hard to think and explain things when you are having a trauma trigger.

Arlo told me he couldn’t believe we (the group facilitators) let that happen in the group (for a group member to joke about violence) and that he was sick of adults pretending to be good guys but doing nothing. He said he was glad to hear me say that violence is never funny but was still angry. I apologized that we didn’t more quickly say something to the group, reiterated that violence is never funny then suggested that we do some breathing with long exhales together to see if it might help with feeling ok enough to rejoin the group. He agreed and together we did 5 inhales with long exhales AAAALL the way out. By the fifth breath Arlo was looking visibly calmer.

It’s important when someone is in fight/flight/freeze that we don’t immediately ask or pry as to ‘what’ happened because they may not know and can’t think properly when in this state. If they don’t know they may experience shame, and if they can’t think properly they might become more agitated or upset. The first way to support is be calm, empathise and see if you can find a way to decrease their fight/flight/freeze response.

I asked Arlo, if he thought he might be ready to re-join the group or if he would like to stay for a bit and rejoin us after a few more minutes of breathing. This gave him some agency to decide and also an opportunity for him to check in with his emotions and body to see if he felt ready – which is something that really helps people with trauma. He said he would rejoin in a few minutes and I said ‘that’s great, I’ll leave you here to do some more breathing and I’ll see you back in there soon. If you don’t come out I will come and check on you in 5 minutes. It will be up totally up to you if you want to share anything about this with the group or simply come back and see how things go’. Once again I was letting him know I was there and would be back (for safety and reliability) and also reiterating his agency in whether to share or not with the group. Arlo rejoined us in a few minutes and let me know after the group how much he appreciated the breathing and space and that he might try that at home.

Here are some places to look for more information

Augimeri, L., Rajca, E., Verpoort, M. Blackman, A. & Walsh, M. (2019). Using a trauma-informed lens to understand and implement evidence-based practices with children experiencing disruptive behavior in school and beyond in J. Pozzulo & C. Bennell (Eds.). Working with trauma-exposed children and adolescents: Evidence-based and age-appropriate practices (1st ed.). Routledge.

Gledhill, T., Practice Frameworks Team, Dunnachie, B., Ruwhiu, L. & Eruera, M. (2017). Trauma: Key theories and their application to practice a background paper to inform the Investing in Children programme. Oranga Tamariki.

Greenwald, R. (2005). Child trauma handbook: A guide for helping trauma-exposed children and adolescents (1st ed.). Routledge.

Moreland-Capuia, A. (2019). Training for change: Transforming systems to be trauma-informed, culturally responsive, and neuroscientifically focused (1st ed. 2019). Springer International Publishing.

Steele, W., & Malchiodi, C. A. (2012). Trauma-informed practices with children and adolescents. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203829493

We thank the Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment for funding the research that created this resource (MAUX2006).

This resource was developed by Dr Jayne Mercier and Amber Davies.

Citation: Mercier, J., & Davies, A. (2024). Understanding the impact of trauma on rangatahi, https://youthsay.co.nz/rbp-theories/Understanding-the-impact-of-trauma-on-rangatahi/

CC BY-NC-ND Licensed using Creative Commons Licensing. Relational Resources for Change Project. You are welcome to use this resource individually, in your teams and in supervision/coaching/critical reflection, you should acknowledge the source using the above citation. You may not change this document, use it to develop your own external training, or for commercial purposes (e.g by charging a fee).